Black Holes :: science physics space

In 1916, the German astronomer Karl Schwarzchild attempted to theorize how a star could shrink to become what he called a "Black Hole". Schwarzchild predicted that our sun would have to shrink to less than two miles in radius. He also predicted that even though the sun had shrunk its mass and weight would remain the same, which means that the planets would continue on their orbits, uneffected. Schwarzchild still questioned if stars could become this compact. In 1934 W. Baade and F. Zwicky predicted that the collapse of a star, strips the atoms of their electrons, thus making it a Neutron Star. He also predicted that these are only 10-15 miles in diameter with a density of about a billion tons per cubic inch. The American physicists R. Oppenheimer and H. Snyder, in 1939, realized that Schwarzchild theory was only possible if the star was much bigger than our sun; approximately 3.9 times or larger. In the early seventies, a x-ray source was located in the Constellation Cygnus. The x-ray source couldn't actually be precisely located but was narrowed down to a relatively small area. At this time it was very puzzling for the scientist. Steven Hawking, in the seventies, came up with theoretical arguments demonstrating that black holes aren't entirely black and that it is possible for them to evaporate because they emit radiation. The radiation from a black hole comes from the mass of it, hence the black hole insinuatingly shrinks. While the radiation tediously increases, the mass slowly decreases. So as the radiation from the black hole increases the black hole shrinks and evidently vanishes. In 1972, scientist pinpointed a radio emission in the same area. This is still puzzling to scientist today but all they knew was that it was originated from the same area as the x-ray source and apparently came from open space. The scientist watched this area for months and finally waited until the spot in space came over the star next to it. When it did there was startling results. The spot in space eclipsed the star next to it. The spot was then named Cygnus X-1 and was officially the first Black hole discovered. Even back in Isaac Newton's time, scientist speculated such an object existed. So many questions had been answered by the discovery of this mysterious object, yet so many more generated. A Black Hole is an object that is so dense not even light can escape its gravity.

Haemochromatosis

In medicine, Iron overload Indicates accumulation of iron In the body from any cause. The most important causes are hereditary haemochromatosis, a genetic disorder. and transfusional Iron overload, which can result from repeated blood transfusion. Terminology Haemochromatosis or haemoslderosls Historically, the term haemochromatosis was initially used to refer to what is now more specifically called haemochromatosis type 1 . Currently, haemochromatosis Is mostly defined as iron overload with a hereditary/primary cause, or originating from a metabolic disorder.However, the term is currently also used more broadly to refer o any form of Iron overload, thus requiring specification of the cause, for example, hereditary haemochromatosis. Hereditary haemochromatosis is an autosomal recessive disorder with estimated prevalence In the population of 1 In 200 among patients with European ancestry, with lower incidence in other ethnic groups. The gene responsible for hereditary haemochromatosis is located on chromosome 6; the majority of hereditary haemochromatosis patients have mutations in this HFE gene.Hereditary haemochromatosis Is characterized by an accelerated rate of Intestinal iron absorption and progressive iron deposition in various tissues that typically egins to be expressed in the third to fifth decades of life, but may occur In children. The most common presentation is hepatic cirrhosis in combination with hypopituitarism, cardiomyopathy, diabetes, arthritis, or hyperpigmentation. Because of the severe sequelae of this disorder if left untreated, and recognizing that treatment is relatively simple, early diagnosis before symptoms or signs appear is Important.In general, the term haemoslderosls Is used to Indicate the pathological effect of iron accumulation in any given organ, which mainly occurs in the form of haemoslderln. Sometimes, the simpler term siderosls Is used Instead. Other definitions distinguishing haemochromatosis or haemosiderosis that are oc casionally used include: Haemosiderosis Is haemochromatosis caused by excessive blood transfusions, that is, haemosiderosis is a form of secondary haemochromatosis.Haemoslderosls is haemoslderln deposition within cells, while haemochromatosis Is haemosiderin within cells and interstitium. Haemosiderosis is iron overload that does not cause tissue damage, while haemochromatosis does. Haemosiderosis Is arbitrarily differentiated from haemochromatosis by the reversible nature of the iron accumulation In the reticuloendothelial system. Clinical presentation Organs commonly affected by haemochromatosis are the liver, heart, and endocrine glands.Haemochromatosis may present with the following clinical syndromes: Cirrhosis of the liver Diabetes due to pancreatic islet cell failure Cardiomyopathy Arthritis Testicular failure Tanning of the skin Joint pain and bone pain 1 OF3 causes The causes can be distinguished between primary cases and less frequent secondary cases . People of Celtic, Br itish, and Scandinavian origin have a particularly high incidence of whom about 10% are carriers of the gene and 1% sufferers from the condition.Primary haemochromatosis The fact that most cases of haemochromatosis were inherited was well known for most of the 20th century, though they were incorrectly assumed to depend on a single gene. The overwhelming majority actually depend on mutations of the HFE gene discovered in 1996, but since then others have been discovered and sometimes are grouped together as â€Å"non-classical hereditary haemochromatosis†, â€Å"non-HFE related hereditary haemochromatosis†, or â€Å"non-HFE haemochromatosis†. Most types of hereditary haemochromatosis have autosomal recessive inheritance, while type 4 has autosomal dominant inheritance.Secondary haemochromatosis Severe chronic haemolysis of any cause, including intravascular haemolysis and ineffective erythropoiesis Multiple frequent blood transfusions, which are usually needed ei ther by individuals with hereditary anaemias or by older patients with severe acquired anaemias such as in myelodysplastic syndromes Excess parenteral iron supplements, such as what can acutely happen in iron poisoning Excess dietary iron Some disorders do not normally cause haemochromatosis on their own, but may do so in the presence of other predisposing factors.These include cirrhosis, teatohepatitis of any cause, porphyria cutanea tarda, prolonged haemodialysis, and post-portacaval shunting. Diagnosis There are several methods available for diagnosing and monitoring iron loading including: Serum ferritin Liver biopsy MRI Serum ferritin is a low-cost, readily available, and minimally invasive method for assessing body iron stores.However, the major problem with using it as an indicator of iron overload is that it can be elevated in a range of other medical conditions unrelated to iron levels including infection, inflammation, fever, liver disease, renal disease, and cancer. Also, total iron binding capacity may be low, but can also be normal. The standard of practice in diagnosis of haemochromatosis was recently reviewed by Pietrangelo. has been extensively validated. More than 11,000 FerriScans have now been conducted in over 120 medical centres across 25 countries.FerriScan is now specifically recommended as a method to measure liver iron concentrations in clinical practice guidelines for thalassaemias, sickle cell disease myelodysplastic syndrome and hereditary haemochromatosis. Family members of those diagnosed with primary haemochromatosis may be advised to be screened genetically to etermine if they are a carrier or if they could develop the disease. This can allow preventative measures to be taken. Prognosis A third of those untreated develop hepatocellular carcinoma.

Marriage at an Early Age Essay

Marriage is regarded as a moment of celebration and a milestone in adult life. The age at first marriage varies across the globe. Being married before the age of 18 has been a social norm in third world countries [refer to Appendix A]. The percentage of women being married before age 18 is estimated to be 20 to 50 percent in average in developing countries (Joyce, et al. , 2001). On the other hand, western countries are unlikely to experience the similar pattern of marriage. The marital union is normally delayed too long although this is the most apparent reason for the breakdown in sexual ethics (Orsi, 2001). Because of its wealth, western society chooses to marry later in life until they have built an adequate maturity in age, education and financial state. Nowadays, many international organizations have made an effort to reduce the number of early marriage worldwide (Yudkin and Robert, 1996). Many believe that the practice of early marriage can hinder self-development of young girls. However, in western countries, there are several efforts to promote young marriages (Orsi, 2001). They believe that early marriage should be looked as a platform to cultivate maturity together but not as an institution just for the grown-up individuals. As we are concern, early marriage is widely practice in developing countries hence a global issue has arisen as to whether early marriage does really hinder self development due to the consequences it brings to young girls. The practice is believed to bring several benefits to some extent. However, the adverse effects it brings can impede the self-development of young adolescences in many aspects including health consequences, character building and education as well as career opportunities. 2. 0Statistical Studies of Early Marriage This aspect highlights the prevalence of early marriage across the globe and the very reasons of early marriage especially in developing countries. This aspect is important to illustrate the situation regarding early marriage worldwide. 2. 1Prevalence of Young Marriage The practice of young marriage is most common in developing countries (United Nation Children’s Fund (UNICEF), 2001). According to Joyce (2001), an analysis of Demographic and Healthy Survey data shows that Latin America, Sub-Saharan Africa and Southeast Asian countries are having the most cases of early marriage. Of these countries that have high cases of young marriage, Niger is the leading country with 88 percent of the women married before age 18. Adapted From: Joyce, L. F. , et al. (2001). Future Options Foreclosed: Girls Who Marry Early. Reproductive Health and Rights. 139-143. Retrieved January 25, 2006, from the World Wide Web: http://www. path. org/files/RHR-Article-14. pdf. 2. 2Major Factors That Lead to Early Marriage The huge number of young marriage in developing countries is due to several reasons. Poverty is one of the major factors underpinning early marriage (Joyce, 2001). A young girl may be regarded as an economic burden for a family thus early marriage is looked as a strategy for economic survival. A current study of five very poor villages in Egypt shows that young girls are being married off to much older men from oil-rich Middle Eastern countries for family survival (UNICEF, 2001). Besides, early marriage is one way to ensure that a girl is protected from physical disturbance (UNICEF, 2001). Parents believe that their daughters are safer when they marry early as there is always a man to guard them. For instance, some families in Northern Uganda encourage the young girls to marry to militia members in order to secure protection (UNICEF, 2001). For third world countries, marriage shortly after puberty is common among those living traditional lifestyles (Joyce, 2001). The girls as early as 14 years old have to carry responsibilities as a wife. As it has become a social custom, the tradition is carried on from one generation to the next. 3. 0Opponents’ Views Against Early Marriage This aspect discusses some of the opponents’ views against early marriage. It mostly talks about the disadvantages of early marriage to the girls including the lack of education, health problems and psychosocial disadvantages. The arguments given agree that early marriage does hamper self-development. 3. 1 The Denial of Education The opponents believed that early marriage denies the right of young adolescents to the education they necessitate for self-development. In traditional societies, the investment in a girl’s education is thought to be wasted as the girl is going to marry and stay at home doing household chores (UNICEF, 2001). For instance, in Northern Nigeria, early marriage is the very reason girls are often withdrawing from school (UNICEF, 2001). Because of the early end of female education, they have limited opportunities to develop skills and acquire knowledge ‘that serve them well throughout their lives’ hence restricts their economic and career opportunities (Joyce, 2001). This is because withdrawal from school that results in illiterate and unskilled women will lead to no recognition in professional field. 3. 2 Health and Reproduction Problem The opponents also argued that early childbearing which always occurs in early marriage endanger the lives of both the mother and her baby (Joyce, 2001). The early pregnancy increases the risk of complications and dying during delivery. A report shows that the risk of death due to pregnancy-related cases is doubled among women aged 15 to 19 compared to adult women (Adhikari, 2006). They further stressed that these girls are also more susceptible to sexually-transmitted diseases (UNICEF, 2001). Hormonal fluctuations and permeability of vaginal tissues experienced by these girls can lead to infertility. Moreover, according to a study in Rwanda, 25 percent of women who were pregnant before 18 were infected with HIV although they only had sex with their husbands (UNICEF, 2001). 3. 3Psychosocial Disadvantages When early marriage takes place, the girls will confront with great emotional damage. Sociologists suggested that this is due to their confinement at home to do household chores hence their mobility is denied (UNICEF, 2001). Most of the girls are depressed with this situation that eventually affects their emotional well being. An Indian research conducted in Rajasthan and Madhya Pradesh found that the spouses of early marriage usually suffered from great psychosocial damage (UNICEF, 2001). Another concern raised by the opponents is that the young girl loses her social life outside family cycle and this has affected her chance of cultivating her own identity (UNICEF, 2001). The most important implication of this is that her self-esteem is silently hindered from being developed and this will make her vulnerable to sexual and physical violence. In Eastern Africa for instance, a young wife has no right to refuse sex to her husband even though her partner is suspected with HIV (UNICEF, 2001). 4. 0 Proponents’ Views on Early Marriage This part will enlighten several views that support early marriage in our society. This includes health benefits, social stability and character advantages. In this argument, early marriage is looked upon as a better practice than delayed marriage. 4. 1 Health Benefits The proponents believed that body functions are more effective and healthy at early stage in life. For women, the body is particularly geared towards reproduction during early adulthood (Orsi, 2001). Early marriage is beneficial because desire and energy from young couples also produce healthy offsprings. They also highlighted that later marriage has led to problematic births and birth defects. This can happen as the body is unlikely to negotiate any burden like pregnancy at a late age. Not surprisingly, later marriage which is always associated with cohabitation and premarital sex increase the risk of sexually-transmitted diseases (Orsi, 2001). The hazardous infections like HIV will spread widely if the practice of premarital sex has became a lifestyle. 4. 2 Early Marriage as a Solution to Cohabitation Another issue raised by the proponents is that the trend towards later marriage has led to a great social deterioration in the society in term of cohabitation. In the United States of America, cohabitation is more prevalent than other countries as the people choose to marry later in life (Henslin, 2005). A study found that cohabitation before marriage is the very reason for breaking up after they were married (Henslin, 2005). Besides that, the increasing case of cohabitation in the United States of America is clearly illustrated by the graph on the next page. Adapted From: Henslin, J. M. (2005). Cohabitation. Sociology- A Down to Earth Approach (2nd Ed. ). 468. Boston: Pearson, Allyn & Bacon. They further argued that married couples including young spouses gain more benefits in terms of physical health, general happiness and longevity than cohabitants. This is proven from a study which was cited as strong evidence that cohabiting couples experienced the rate of depression three times more than married couple (Popenoe and Dafoe, 2006). . 3 Self-development Improvement It is also believed that early marriage helps in cultivating maturity. Early marriage is looked upon as a platform for young people to grow in maturity together. Moreover, they share experiences at an early age before egoism is deposited in their heart. This is important to ensure a successful marriage is established (Orsi, 2001). They further emphasized that early marriage is a natural institution to grow emotionally by everyday give and take at an early age. This foundation is hard to build later in life. Also, through The London Telegraph, Emma Besbrode has reported that individuals that are unmarried by early age are more vulnerable to depression and loneliness (Orsi, 2001). This unbalance in emotional development will lead to a stressful life. 5. 0 How Does Early Marriage Hamper Self-development? In this area, both arguments from proponents and opponents are being evaluated in terms of health, character building and education. This is important to determine whether the practice of early marriage does impede self-development. 5. 1 Health Aspect Health is a very important aspect in self-development of an individual. Early marriage greatly affect the health of young adolescents especially girls. Although women who marry later in life are also vulnerable to problematic birth, (Orsi, 2001) the girls who are particularly still growing up have to struggle with the risks associated with early pregnancies (UNICEF, 2001). This is because the physical features of the girls are not fully developed and therefore both the girls and their babies have to compete to obtain the necessary nutrients for themselves. This means that early marriage endangers both mother and her baby. Besides those, sexual intercourse that takes place at a very young age can enhance the risk of sexually-transmitted diseases (STD) (UNICEF, 2001). It is also true that STD can also infect unmarried people as well especially among cohabitants, but a recent study conducted in Rwanda shows that the younger the age at sexual intercourse, the higher the risk of STD (UNICEF, 2001). This proves that early marriage set off a poor cycle of health. 5. 2 Character Building Aspect Each and every individual has his/her own character. The practice of early marriage limits character development as a girl who marries early experiences less socialization outside her family cycle (UNICEF, 2001). This reduces her opportunities for building her own identity which is vital for her successful self-development. On the other hand, some individuals believe that early marriage is a stage for maturity to be acquired and it is not just for matured individuals (Orsi, 2001). However, it is not the case as these girls are affected by great emotional disturbance and depression. Inter-American researchers have discovered that these emotional consequences are ‘unavoidable part of life’ for those who choose to marry early (UNICEF, 2001). Therefore, it is clearly shown that early marriage does hinder personal development. 5. 3 Education and Intellect The importance of well-developed education is vital for an individual to survive. Since early marriage is the major reason for young adolescents to quit from school (Adhikari, 2006), it can restrict career prospects of a girl by limiting her chances to acquire important skills and knowledge. Without those qualities, the girl’s future seems to foreclose to any opportunities for economic survival. In fact, unemployment rates are higher for those who have limited education (Baker and Dryden, 1993). This is clearly illustrated from the table below. Unemployment Rate by Educational Attainment for 15 to 24 year-olds, Canada, 1991 Educational AttainmentUnemployment Rate 0 to 8 years29. 5 Some secondary education20. 7 High school graduation15. 7 Some post-secondary12. 6 Post-secondary certificate11. 7 University degree 8. 1 Total16. 2 Source: Baker, M. and Dryden, J. (1993). Patterns in Employment and Unemployment or Young People. Families in Canadian Society (2nd Ed. ). 93-94. Canada: McGraw-Hill Ryerson Limited. For those reasons, early marriage is proven to bring more harm than benefits. This practice consequently hampers one’s personal development. 6. 0 Conclusion The practice of early marriage in our society today does hinder personal development of individuals in terms of health, character building and intellectual qualities. First, a girl is more vulnerable to diseases and complications when sex intercourse takes place between the spouses occur at an early age. Early pregnancies followed by childbearing can also bring harm to the girl by increasing the risks of dying and problems during delivery. Apart from this, character building which is important to determine one’s unique identity will be affected as well when a girl enters marriage at a young age. The loss of mobility and social life due to the early marriage will result in lack of self esteem and great emotional damage. In addition, limited education is obvious among those who marry early. In the long run, this lack of schooling will restrict economic and career prospect in the future because withdrawal from school means no qualifications and recognition. This will foreclose the future options of one’s self. Therefore, the practice of early marriage is proven to hinder personal development and should be reduced among young adolescents especially in developing countries with high incidence of young marriage. Effective steps should be executed by international organization to reduce the number of this practice worldwide. For instance, each country should rise up the legal age for marriage. Besides that, education should be promoted among young couples so that they acquire adequate level of education for their future. Although it is difficult to reduce the number, by helping the young spouses with their life, it more or less, reduces the burden they carry.

Brain Scans Show Pattern In Violent Behavior Essays - Brain

Brain Scans Show Pattern In Violent Behavior Essays - Brain Brain Scans Show Pattern In Violent Behavior Murderers and other people prone to violence have distinct brain patterns that can be scanned and that might be changed with drugs and other therapies, researchers said. Most people's brain can rein in overreaction to emotions such as fear or anger. But in pathologically violent people, this control system gets short-circuited. Several studies have shown this rewiring can be seen in images such as PET(positron emission tomography) scans. Impulsive,affective aggression may be the product of a failure of emotion regulation, University of Wisconsin-Madison psychologist Richard Davidson and colleagues wrote in their report, published in journal science. They said normal people can control their emotions,and can respond to cues from other people, such facial expressions of fear. We suggest that individuals predisposed to aggression and violence have an abnormality in the central circuitry responsible for these adaptive behavioral strategies, they wrote. Davidson and his team reviewed studies, including some of their own, involving 500 violent people with aggressive personality disorder,childhood brain injuries and convicted murderers. They compared their brain function to nonviolent people. They found dysfunction in the same brain regions in 41 murderers, in a group suffering from aggressive impulsive personality disorder and in some people diagnosed with antisocial personality disorder. And they found that the same brain regions were involved again and again. The evidence we have reviewed indicates that the orbitofrontal cortex and the structures with which it is interconnected, including other prefrontal territories, the anterior cingulate cortex ,and the amygdala, constitute core elements of a circuit that underlies emotion regulation,they wrote. The orbital frontal cortex is important in h olding back impulsive outbursts, while the anterior cingulate cortex recruits other brain regions in the response to conflict. The amydala, the almond-shaped structure linked with fear and emotion ,is also and important player. In violent people, its activity essentially ran out of control, while other brain regions could calm it down in normal people. Abnormalities in serotonin function in regions of the prefrontal cortex may be especially important, the researchers added. Serotonin is an important message-carrying hormone, known as a neurotransmitter, linked with mood and emotion. It is targeted by antidepressant drugs. Davidson said genetics and environment are probably both involved and it may be possible to rewire these faulty circuits with drugs or psychological therapy. Given what we know about brain plasticity and the fact that the brain really can change in response to experience, we have good reason to expect that these treatments may, in fact, have beneficial consequences, he said in a statement. Meanwhile, a second report in Science suggested that aggression is not always bad. Frans de Waal of the yerkes Regional Primate Research Center in Atlanta said sometimes conflict led to closer relationships by letting peole literally kiss and make-up. For example, chimpanzees kiss and embrace after fight, and other nonhuman primates engage in similar reconciliations,he wrote.

The Ecological Validity Essay Example

The Ecological Validity Essay Example The Ecological Validity Paper The Ecological Validity Paper Pennington and Hastie believed that jurors’ will construct a story to make sense of evidence and then return the verdict that has the ‘best fit’ with their story. P and H investigated whether the order of testimony had an effect on the jurors’ decisions. The sample used in this study consisted of 130 students from the University of Chicago.  The two story-telling strategies investigated in this study are; story order and witness order. Story order is when the Lawyers present evidence in the sequence that events occurred, and witness order is when lawyers present witnesses in the sequence they believe is most likely to persuade the jury (may not be the sequence in which the events occurred, also the benefits of primacy and recency effects are taken into account. Primacy effect is when for example out of a list of 10 words you are most likely to remember the first word; whereas the recency effect claims you are most likely to remember the last word. The study was a laboratory experiment, using independent groups design, with ps acting as jurors in a mock trial. The IV was the order of testimony and the DV was the verdict given. In individual cubicles ps listened to a tape recording of the stimulus trial and then responded to written questions. They were told to reach either a guilty or not guilty verdict on a murder charge. Ps were allocated to one of four conditions. In each condition, the same evidence was presented by the defence and prosecution, only the order of presentation changed (witness or story order). The Results of the study showed that the prosecution were most likely to win (78% of guilty verdict) when they used story order and defence used witness order. Similarly, the defence were most likely to win when they used story order and the prosecution used witness order (only 31% guilty verdict).  Pennington and Hastie concluded that order of testimony does affect juror’s decisions. In particular, jurors are more easily persuaded by ‘story order’ than ‘witness order’. P and H also suggested that the reason why 80% of criminal court cases return guilty verdicts in the US is because prosecution lawyers tend to use story order and defence lawyers tend to use witness order. Lawyers use a variety of different techniques in order to persuade a jury, into convincing their client’s innocence. Various studies have been conducted into investigating the best techniques for persuading a jury, but the main issue with many of these studies is that they l ack ecological validity. The most common method used in studies investigating persuading a jury, is a laboratory experiment in the form of a mock trial. Mock trials are often used because, people outside of the jury are not allowed into the jury room due to confidentiality of the legal process. One of the main issues with the use of mock trials is that participants often make an individual decision concerning the verdict of the trial, and are sometimes even asked to give a rating of their belief of the defendant’s guilt. For example in Edwards and Bryan, both of these issues occur, each individual participant gives a verdict as well as a number of ratings concerning their beliefs about the defendant’s guilt or innocence and their views about an appropriate sentence. As in a real court case the jury is only asked to give a verdict of guilty of innocent, which is made in a group decision, the study lacks ecological validity. Another problem with using mock trials is that there is a lack of consequence, meaning the result/verdict given by the participants has no effect on the trial, as in Pennington and Hastie’s study on the effect of order of testimony on jurors’ decisions. Due to the lack of pressure of wrongfully committing someone of a crime/vice versa as well as the lack of emotional stress associated with serving on a jury in a court room. The study is said to lack ecological validity as it cannot be applied to the real world. Mock trials often present the evidence in various ways, for instance in Pennington and Hastie’s study, the evidence is presented to the participants in individual cubicles, where they listen to a tape recording of the stimulus trial. Another form in which evidence is presented is in Cutler, ps are shown a videotaped robbery trial and in Edwards and Bryan, ps are given a transcript of an actual murder trial in California. Although in Edwards and Bran the transcript is taken from an actual case, the study is still lacking in ecological validity as it is a very different way of gathering data on the trial through a transcript or videotape than it being presented by a lawyer in court. Often small unrepresentative samples are used due to the use of opportunity sampling. For example in Edwards and Bryan 74 university students are used, as they are all students, the sample is unrepresentative of a typical jury and therefore lowing the ecological validity of the study.  Another way in which persuading a jury, can be investigated is via â€Å"shadow jury†, this is an alternative to mock trials, and consists of a group of participants who â€Å"shadow† i.e. sit in on a case/trial and at the end come to a verdict themselves, and seeing if their opinions are conclusive with the juror’s. Although there are certain advantages to this method such as an improved ecological validity as the participants receive the same amount of evidence as a real jury, presented in a real manner. However the study still lacks ecological validity due to the lack of consequences, i.e. no pressure of wrongfully committing an innocent person and vice versa.  Overall research into persuading a jury is often very lacking in ecological validity due to the laboratory method often used in the form of a mock trial. As these studies have a very low ecological validity, the studies lack applicability to the real world and have low validity in results.

Capital Budgeting Techniques and Sensitivity Analysis

Sensitivity analysis can be understood as research of the uncertainty within the production of a mathematical model or system that can be allocated to several uncertainty sources within its inputs (Ai, Croce and Li 2013). Sensitivity analysis serves as techniques employed for determining the ways in which several values of certain variable impact on a a dependent variable within a specific cluster of assumptions. Sensitivity analysis is generated for analyzing the impact that the great range of variables has on the desired outcome. This analysis is relied on the variables effecting valuation that a financial model can indicate through employing the price and EPS variables (Borgonovo and Plischke 2016). For instance, Apple Inc employs sensitivity analysis along with the consideration of long-term cost of capital. Sensitivity analysis that is employed by Apple Inc serves as a technique of evaluating alterations in particular project’s NPV or the IRR for the given change within one of the variables. This signifies the extent to which a project is NPV or IRR is sensitive for a considered change in one among the variables (Fujimori et al. 2014). Apple Inc considers that the more the NPV of a project is sensible the more critical can be the variable. The following steps are deemed associated with the implementation of the sensitivity analysis that is mentioned under: Sensitivity analysis of the efficiency criteria for the purpose of investment project analysis serves as the calculating technique of researching and deciding the impact of changes in the individual values considered on the investment project analysis (Gospodinov, Kan and Robotti 2014). Apple Inc stated that strong implementation of the sensitivity analysis within the investment decision-making under certain uncertainty situations includes numerous major input parameters like the income, investment value, costs, discount rate in accordance with the impacts and effects of the alterations of these parameters (Kuehn, Simutin and Wang 2016). This is on the values of numerous basic criteria that can be considered as investment decision-making process namely the criteria of internal rate of return, net present value and the payback period. Sensitivity analysis serves as major criteria for the evaluation of investment projects serves as extremely complex process. With the help of the sensitivity analysis, the investors will be capable to obtain a great number of information regarding the impact of the input parameters on the criteria those are examined for conducting effective investment decision-making (Lee and Su 2014). Apple Inc stated that information can also be gathered regarding the impact of input parameters based on the criteria value that can further enhance investment decision making. Capital budgeting serves as a process though which investors determine which projects to select. Sensitivity analysis offers superior insight for the investors to take effective business decisions. Scenario analysis serves as the technique of evaluating likely future events through taking into account certain alternative possible outcomes. For this reason, for Apple Inc. scenario analysis can serve as a technique that can be the major form of projection, which does not attempt to indicate one accurate picture of the future (Mà ¸nster et al. 2014). Scenario analysis acts as a technique of anticipating the expected portfolio value that is in response to certain unfavorable event and might be employed to analyze theoretical worst-case circumstances.   Moreover, scenario analysis serves as a process in order to ascertain and evaluate the likely events that can take place in the upcoming years. This serves as a vital tool that is increasingly used in making projections over the upcoming years (Rangvid, Santa-Clara and Schmeling 2016). Scenario analysis is increasingly associated with capital budgeting techniques. An investment’s scenario analysis might include the followin g steps: Revealing the best-case output within most suitable value for all the inputs is an option of scenario analysis. For instance, Apple Inc considers that at the time of calculating net present value, the most suitable value for discount rate is used along with considering likely cash flow growth along with lower tax rate (Tian 2013). With implementation of effective capital budgeting techniques such as NPV and IRR, it can be stated that scenario analysis is a model output that is calculated for over an ample scenarios. Scenario analysis is widely employed in order to estimate proper investment value in several situations. Scenario analysis is greatly used in taking investment decisions through implementation of capital budgeting techniques like NPV and IRR (Zabarankin, Pavlikov and Uryasev 2014). For Apple Inc, scenario analysis was deemed most vital techniques for evaluating risks associated with the investment projects. The scenario analysis served as the techniques those are used by investors along with using the discount rates must be used for projects with several risks. Capital Asset Pricing Model (CAPM) is a model employed for theoretically determining suitable asset based rate on return in order to make decisions regarding adding assets within an efficiently diversified portfolio. Capital asset pricing model explains the prediction of the relationship that can be observed within the risk associated with asset along with its expected return (Ai, Croce and Li 2013). Taking into consideration that the Capital Market Line (CML), the market portfolio is deemed to encompass segmentation of all the risks assets. This is done through employing the market value of the assets in order to determine the weights (Borgonovo and Plischke 2016). The CML line is deemed to be arrived from CAPM that decides the anticipated return at numerous risk levels. In the capital asset pricing model, CML is only applicable only in case of an investor’s final portfolio and in the world of CAPM; the investors are likely to hold portfolios that rely on the CML. In CAPM, the capital market line is deemed higher than the efficient frontier as it focuses on the consideration of the risk-free asset within a portfolio (Fujimori et al. 2014). The capital asset pricing model signifies that market portfolio is majorly the efficient frontier. The assumptions of CAPM are deemed unrealistic and such reality simplification is vital for preparing useful models. Tolerance of the CAPM model’s assumptions that facilitates derivation of a well built, idealized through a model of manner within which the financial markets gauges risk and changes it within anticipated return. The capital asset pricing model indicates that the market portfolio serves as efficient frontier (Rangvid, Santa-Clara and Schmeling 2016). Within the CAPM, the securities are priced so that the anticipated risks counterbalance the decided returns. There are two aspects within the CAPM model, which requires generating Capital Market Line. The capital market line indicates the investment returns of an investor for a particular portfolio. The capital market line employs the CAPM formula in order to calculate the anticipated return of a portfolio or security (Rangvid, Santa-Clara and Schmeling 2016). CML serves as the graphical representation of the CAPM formula. It explains the relationship between the systematic risk and expected return related with a portfolio. The CAPM formula that consists of formula on capital market line is helpful in deciding whether a security can be considered for effective investment decision making. The association between the CAPM formula and capital market line are indicated in the formula below:   is deemed to denote the point associated with the market portfolio (M). All the portfolios selected by a rational investor are deemed to have a point   that relies on the capital market line (Mà ¸nster et al. 2014). Considering this formula, it can be said that the CAPM model can be employed in order to measure the systematic risk associated with a single share. Moreover, the transformation line, which remains tangential to the efficient set along with having intercepted within risk-free rate Rf, is the capital market line. This defines that a particular composition of the risky assets those investor wishes to hold. This is deemed as market portfolio (M). Moreover, CML serves as the transformation line, which is observed to be tangential with the efficient frontier (Mà ¸nster et al. 2014). Capital Market Line (CML) serves as a line that connects returns with no-risk investments along with overall market returns (Zabarankin, Pavlikov and Uryasev 2014). The difference between efficient frontier and capital market line is that capital market line involves less risk investments ad all the portfolios within it are efficient frontiers. Capita market line is employed in order to analyze the performance of portfolio. Certain points below any other point within the line will offer decreased returns along with similar risks and for such reasons these are not ideal. Capital market line is deemed a measure used to analyze performance of portfolio. Capital Market Line (CML) is a graph used within the capital asset pricing models in order to signify rates of return within the market portfolio (Borgonovo and Plischke 2016). Capital market line explains rates of return for the effective portfolios those are relied on the degree of risk along with risk free rate of return for a particu lar portfolio. Capital Market Line initiates from considering the assumption that all the company’s investors needs to possess market portfolio. Intensity of risk is deemed to be positively correlated to the anticipated return (Zabarankin, Pavlikov and Uryasev 2014). The Capital Market Line serves as the linear combinations of the risk-free asset and portfolio. Portfolios under the capital market line are deemed inferior that indicates new efficient set. Capital Market Line is observed to remain within the capital asset pricing model in order to indicate the rates of return for efficient portfolios likely to face the risk level for a market portfolio along with risk-free return rate (Borgonovo and Plischke 2016). The capital market line is generated through drawing a tangent line from the point of intercept on the efficient frontier to the situation where the expected return on a holding is similar to the risk-free return rate. The capital market line facilitates the investor in taking into account the risks of several additional assets within the remaining portfolio. The capital market line results from the association with the market portfolio along with the risk-free asset (Zabarankin, Pavlikov and Uryasev 2014). All the points in consideration to CML have increased risk-return profiles to certain portfolio within the efficient frontier with the exception of the market portfolio that serves as point within efficient frontier within which capita market line is a tangent. From the CML perception, such portfolio encompasses all the risky assets and has less holding on the risk free assets. As per CAPM, market portfolio signifies efficient frontier and this can be gathered as cluster of portfolios (Lee and Su 2014). The market portfolio in combination to the risk-free asset is able to produce an increased return than the efficient frontier. Therefore, it can be said that the combination of the market portfolio along with the risk-free asset leads to emergence of capital market line. The major techniques employed for project analysis are the NPV and IRR analysis. Sensitivity analysis considers the NPV and IRR of an investment project at the time more than one variable alterations (Lee and Su 2014). The idea that exists based on all the variables except the one evaluated and analyze the way sensitivity of the NPV or the IRR are to changes within that variable. Ai, H., Croce, M.M. and Li, K., 2013. Toward a quantitative general equilibrium asset pricing model with intangible capital.  Review of Financial Studies,  26(2), pp.491-530. Borgonovo, E. and Plischke, E., 2016. Sensitivity analysis: a review of recent advances.  European Journal of Operational Research,  248(3), pp.869-887. Fujimori, S., Kainuma, M., Masui, T., Hasegawa, T. and Dai, H., 2014. The effectiveness of energy service demand reduction: A scenario analysis of global climate change mitigation.  Energy policy,  75, pp.379-391. Gospodinov, N., Kan, R. and Robotti, C., 2014. Misspecification-robust inference in linear asset-pricing models with irrelevant risk factors.  Review of Financial Studies,  27(7), pp.2139-2170. Kuehn, L.A., Simutin, M. and Wang, J.J., 2016. A labor capital asset pricing model. Lee, M.C. and Su, L.E., 2014. Capital Market Line Based on Efficient Frontier of Portfolio with Borrowing and Lending Rate.  Universal Journal of Accounting and Finance,  2(4), pp.69-76. Mà ¸nster, J.G., Samuelsson, J., Kjeldsen, P., Rella, C.W. and Scheutz, C., 2014. Quantifying methane emission from fugitive sources by combining tracer release and downwind measurements–a sensitivity analysis based on multiple field surveys.  Waste Management,  34(8), pp.1416-1428. Rangvid, J., Santa-Clara, P. and Schmeling, M., 2016. Capital market integration and consumption risk sharing over the long run.  Journal of International Economics,  103, pp.27-43. Tian, W., 2013. A review of sensitivity analysis methods in building energy analysis.  Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews,  20, pp.411-419. Zabarankin, M., Pavlikov, K. and Uryasev, S., 2014. Capital asset pricing model (CAPM) with drawdown measure.  European Journal of Operational Research,  234(2), pp.508-517.

Intellectual Property Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words - 1

Intellectual Property - Essay Example It is able to prevent and treat diabetic complications. It contains fagomine and 1-deoxynojirimycin whereby the ratio of their weights is 0.5, which is approximately 5:1. The preferred weight ratio is 2 which implies about 5:1 ratio of the weight of 1-deoxynojirimycin to that of fagomine. Firstly, this invention focuses its research on the role of ensuring reduction in blood glucose of the composition of fagomine and 1-deoxynojirimycin through the mixing of different ratios. The expected result is that the two compounds would have very good synergistic hypoglycemic effect within a set proportion range. The mixing ratio selected is that with a better synergistic hypoglycemic effect. In addition, it also researches the effect of the composition when combined with other hypoglycemic compounds. In the event of reducing hypoglycemic rats’ blood glucose after intragastric sucrose administration, joint application of other hypoglycemic substances and fagomine and 1-deoxynojirimycin a re able to more effectively reduce blood glucose than any other hypoglycemic compounds or any single or combined applications. This composition can be made in to various formulations such as capsules, tablets, granules, dripping pills, powder, and oral liquid. Conventional methods and conventional excipients can be adopted as the preparation methods. From the research results, it is clear that the present applications has well spelt-out mechanism and significance usefulness which can be employed in preventing and treating diabetes and any complications accompanied with it. This issued patent operates in the Biomedical and technology field and address the concerns of the diabetes menace which over the years has claimed more lives just as much as cancer and HIV/AIDS. The novel thing about this invention is how it utilizes the capability of compositions to synergistically help not only prevent and treat diabetes but also deal with any other complications associated with it. Currently, this invention is both locally and internationally patented. This patent protection can be said to be broad, and it bars existing technologies or pharmaceutical companies from using the stated formula and essentially the composition of 1-deoxynojirimycin and fagomine in the manufacture or improvement of existing blood glucose reduction remedies. This invention can take the form of a pharmaceutical company, product line or just a product in the form of capsules, tablets, granules, dripping pills, powder, and oral liquid. Artificial red blood cells (Patent Number 7348399) This invention patent application number 11/433,259 was applied for in the U.S by Haynie Donald T. in May 2006 and is yet to be issued. It has been classified under current U.S class 530/300; 530/385 and current international class A61K 38/03 (20060101); A61K 38/16 (20060101). Invention Summary It provides a new method for the identification of sequence motifs of a given net charge and length at a neutral pH in seque nce information of amino acid for use in recording a required number of motifs and in ELBL. This is a seven step method consisting of (a) obtaining a peptide amino acid sequence from a given organism; (b) locating a starter amino acid; (c) examining the starter amino acid t determine the number of charged amino acids which have an opposite polarity; (d)